I. Panama Canal

In 1900, the navy did not have enough ships to protect our interests in the Pacific and the Atlantic at the same time.

In 1903, TR concluded a treaty with Colombia to lease a strip of land across Panama, but the Colombian government refused to ratify the treaty. TR supported a Panamanian revolution against Colombia, immediately recognized the Panamanian independence, and signed a treaty with the new government for a renewable lease for a canal zone.

The Panama Canal is an engineering marvel. The canal was also symbolic of TR's foreign policy. For TR, the U.S. needed to be willing to back it foreign policy with military force if necessary.
 

II. Progressive Foreign Policy

Progressive diplomacy, like Progressive politics, stressed moralism and order by relying on strong executive authority and by shaping the environment. The Monroe Doctrine took on global proportions. Progressive foreign policy was assertive and nationalistic, designed to promote trade.
 

III. The Caribbean

TR and others believed that if we declared Latin American off limits to Europe by the Monroe Doctrine, than the U.S. had the obligation to keep order there. This extension of the Monroe Doctrine, to assume responsibility for the internal affairs of several Caribbean nations, was called the "Roosevelt Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine.

The Panama Canal gave the U.S. a commanding strategic and commercial position in the Western Hemisphere, and its existence "required" the U.S. to "police" the surrounding region.

Before granting Cuba independence in 1902, the U.S. included in its constitution a the Platt Amendment giving the U.S. the right to intervene if Cuban independence were threatened or if internal disorder broke out. The U.S. also demanded that Cuba reorganize its finances to prevent instability that might lead to European interference.
 

IV. TR the Diplomat

TR was a versatile diplomat. Stability in the Far East was based on balancing the expansionary interests of Russia and Japan. His intercession into the Russo-Japanese war ended the hostilities and maintaining the balance of power in Asia. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906.

TR sent 16 battleships, the "Great White Fleet," on a world cruise. The show of force heralded a new era of American naval power, but also caused Japan to expand its navy and accelerated the trend toward Japanese domination in Asia.

TR's policies toward Japan reflected his two underlying principles: American interests were global, and that armed conflict between major powers should be avoided if possible.
 

V. Wilson and Missionary Diplomacy

TR's foreign policy was based on pragmatism. Wilson was convinced that morality should guide all conduct. To the diplomacy of order, force, and finance, Wilson brought a commitment to justice, democracy, and Christian values. America's mission was to foster peace, human rights, and social progress in the world.

Wilson's missionary diplomacy had a practical side -- exporting American democracy and capitalism would promote world trade, stability and progress.

Wilson operated his own foreign policy, and in his rare moments of doubt, he turned to his friend "Colonel" Edward House who exercised behind-the-scenes power over the president.

Wilson's Secretary of State was William Jennings Bryan, a perfect match to Wilson's missionary impulse. Bryan was absolutely devoted to peace, but he had no experience in foreign affairs.

In 1913, Bryan introduced his plan for world peace -- a series of "treaties of conciliation." The treaties provided for "cooling off" agreements that would prevent nations from going to war impulsively. Experienced diplomats dismissed it as a worthless, unenforceable gesture.

Despite Wilson's ideals, in the Caribbean and Latin America he resorted to intervention. He failed to appreciate the impossibility of grafting American-style democracy and capitalism onto nations with different traditions and aspirations. By 1916, U.S. troops were still in Cuba. Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Cuba had become virtual American protectorates.
 

VI. Mexico

In 1911 a revolution plunged Mexico into turmoil. Huerta overthrew the revolutionary government in 1913 and executed its leader, Madero. Soon, civil war erupted in Mexico.

Wilson refused to recognize Huerta's government and banned arms sales to Mexico. He supported behind rebel leader Carranza on the condition that Carranza participate in American-style elections. Carranza rejected Wilson's offer, but Wilson continued to support the rebels.

Wilson ordered the U.S. Marines to occupy Veracruz to prevent a shipment of German weapons from being unloaded in the city. All the rival Mexican factions were outraged over Wilson's invasion, and the U.S. and Mexico almost went to war.

Huerta resigned and Carranza formed a new constitutional government. Wilson then supported Villa and Zapata, who kept the revolution going. In 1915 Wilson finally recognizing the Carranza government. Villa, now betrayed by Wilson, attacked U.S. citizens and towns. Wilson ordered U.S. troops into Mexico to capture Villa, but they failed. The "punitive expedition" strained U.S.-Mexican relations.

Wilson's Mexican policy had laudable goals -- to help the Mexicans achieve political and agrarian reform -- but his methods were condescending and he failed to accomplish any of them.
 

VII. World War One

On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary mobilized its forces to punish Serbia. In reaction, Russia mobilized its large army. Germany joined Austria-Hungary, and France joined Russia. On July 28, Austria attacked Serbia. On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia, and two days later on France.

The German battle plan called for German armies to sweep into France from the west and north-west. Neutral Belgium stood in the way, but Germany attacked Belgium and moved through it on their way to France.

The events of the summer of 1914 heralded the first global war. Britain, Japan, Romania and Italy joined France and Russia, the "Allies;" while Bulgaria and Turkey joined Germany and Austria-Hungary as the "Central Powers."
 

VIII. Neutrality

The outbreak of war shocked most Americans. Wilson declared the U.S. to be neutral. Neutrality would be difficult, and impartiality would be impossible, because most Americans were tied by language and culture to Britain. Americans read British propaganda about German war atrocities. American financial ties to the Allies created a vested interest in an Allied victory.

The British blockaded Germany. To break the blockade, the Germans relied on submarines, called U-boats. Before the submarine, merchant raiders usually stopped their targets andallowed the crews and passengers to escape before sinking the ship. But if U-boats were to follow that practice, they would be sunk. U-boats, therefore, attacked without warning and spared no lives. Germany promised not to sink any American ships.

On May 7, 1915, a German U-boat sunk the British passenger ship Lusitania, killing 1200 people, including 128 Americans.

Americans were shocked. Wilson urged restraint and demanded that Germany end its use of submarines and stop sinking passenger ships. Germany agreed but later disavowed its pledge and sunk several passanger and merchant ships. Wilson threatened war if Germany did not end sinking unarmed vassals. Germany agreed to stop sinking unarmed vessels, easing tensions.

Most Americans agreed that neutrality was the wisest course of action. During the 1916 election Wilson's campaign slogan was "He Kept Us Out Of War." Wilson won because of his peace promises.

Twice Wilson sent emissaries to European capitals in behind-the-scenes efforts to negotiate a peace settlement but they ignored him. Both sides were committed to absolute victory. Wilson called for a "peace without victory."

In January 1917, Germany announced that it would resume unrestricted submarine warfare. Wilson's attempt to fashion a just and honorable peace collapsed. He asked Congress for permission to arm merchant ships and ended diplomatic relations with Germany.

On March 12, U-boats torpedoed the American merchantman Algonquin. Also in March, the Russian revolution threw a major Ally into chaos. By the end of March, reports reached Washington that the Allies were near collapse.

On April 2, Wilson delivered his war message to Congress. Congress, like the nation itself, was split over American participation in the war. In the end, cultural and historical ties to the Allies, the German U-boat campaign, and the American financial investment in the Allied cause tipped the balance in favor of war. Wilson had not wanted war, but came to see it as the only way to realize his vision for a just peace.
 

IX. The War

A continuous immovable front of trenches stretched from Flanders to Switzerland. Death was common at the front. By 1917, the nations of Europe were running out of men, money, and supplies.

Americans assumed that their role would be limited to economic and military aid. But the desperation of the Allies forced the U.S. army to send a million men to Europe by the spring of 1918. To raise such a force, Congress passed a Selective Service Act -- a draft.

The military employed the new intelligence test to determine a soldier's "IQ," but the test exposed cultural background rather than intelligence.

Arming America's new army required a national coordinated effort. New taxes and war bonds appeared. The bond drives, in fact served a dual purpose -- they raised money and fueled patriotic fervor.

Rapid conversion of industry and the economy to a war footing created bottlenecks. Wilson created the War Industries Board, with authority to set prices, allocate resources, create production schedules, standardize procedures and coordinate government purchases. The WIB also covered all costs and guaranteed profits.

The government encouraged Americans to farm more to replace the food loses from the war. Farmers brought marginal land into production, and their real income jumped 25%.
 

X. Propaganda and Civil Liberties

American succumbed to war hysteria. The president created the Committee on Public Information. The CPI commissioned posters, distributed millions of pamphlets, issued press releases, and sponsored war expositions.

The CPI evolved into a powerful propaganda mill. "Four Minute Men," fast talking public speakers, kept patriotism at a white-hot frenzy with four minute speeches of war tirades.

As the war progressed, patriotism turned into intolerance and "100% Americanism." Immigrants, pacifists, aliens, and radicals came under increasingly hostile scrutiny. German-Americans became special targets. Wilson, a champion of free speech in theory, proved to be its foe in reality. He signed the Espionage Act which provided a fine and 20 year sentences for anyone convicted of obstructing military operations, including recruitment. He also signed the Sedition Act which outlawed any disloyal language about the U.S., the Constitution, the flag, or the uniform of the army or navy. These acts went far beyond what was necessary to protect national interests.

Opponents of the war, especially leftists and Socialists, suffered the most. The Supreme Court upheld the wartime assaults on civil liberties and dissent.
 

XI. The U.S. in the War.

During the war, the American Navy performed with special distinction. Monthly shipping losses were cut in half, and no troop ships were sunk.

The American forces in Europe were under the command of General "Black Jack" Pershing, whose military experience included leading the unsuccessful punitive campaign against Villa in Mexico. He insisted that the American soldiers remain in independent units rather than be filtered into foreign units.

In March 1918, the Germans made one last offensive. The American soldiers stunned the Germans with the ferocity in battle. The Americans launched a successful counter-offensive to crack the faltering German defenses. In late October and early November, the Germans were in retreat. In October Germany appealed to Wilson for an armistice. By the end of the October, Turkey, Bulgaria, and Austria-Hungary were all out of the war. Early in November, the German Kaiser was overthrown. At 4:00 a.m. on November 11, Germany signed an armistice.

Of the 2 million Americans who had served in Europe, 48,909 died in combat and 230,000 were wounded. Losses to disease brought the total American death toll to 112,000. The American contribution had proved to be critical to the Allied victory. Four years of war had claimed the lives of fifty million Europeans, soldiers and civilians alike. Starvation and disease in the first year of peace killed another 6 million. In other parts of Europe, social chaos and revolution erupted.
 

XII. The Versailles Peace Conference

Before the fighting stopped, Wilson began to formulate peace plans. He outlined the terms for a non-punitive peace settlement. Wilson's "Fourteen Points" were generous and farsighted, but they failed to satisfy the emotions of nations that sought vindication for their cause. England and France distrusted Wilson's idealism as the basis for peace and wanted Germany dismembered, crippled, and disarmed.

So Committed was Wilson to his moral and just peace that he went to Europe personally to oversee the peace process. Wilson's arrival in Europe was the high point of his life.

Noticeably absent from the peace conference were the Russians. France and Britain were supporting anti-Bolshevik forces in the Russian civil war. In 1918, the Allies persuaded Wilson to send a small force of American soldiers to Russia.

During the treaty negotiations, Wilson was forced to yield many of his Fourteen Points, but some remained. National self-determination led to the creation of a several new nations in Europe. Former colonies gained new status as "mandates" of the victors, who were to prepare them for eventual independence.
 

XIII. The League of Nations

Wilson was able to negotiate away some of his Fourteen Points because he remained committed to the League of Nations. He believed that all errors in the Versailles Treaty would be corrected through the League. Article X, a collective security agreement, was the one Wilson believed was the most important.

Wilson returned home victorious. The Europeans had rejected most of his Fourteen Points, but the League of Nations was intact. All Wilson needed for his vision of a new world order was Senate approval of the peace treaty. But Wilson had made an error, enraging Republicans and his political enemy, Henry Cabot Lodge.

Lodge disliked Wilson's Democratic politics, and hated him personally. While most of the nation favored the treaty, Lodge set out to destroy it. Lodge loved the Republican Party more than world peace and certainly did not want the Democrats to gain politically by taking credit for the treaty. But he was also fought to preserve American freedom of action in foreign affairs.

In July 1919, Wilson made changes that he believed would placate the Senate critics at home -- keeping domestic affairs free from League interference; preserving the Monroe Doctrine; and permitting members to quit the League on two years notice.

But Wilson again did not appreciate the level of opposition that the Treaty faced at home. Wilson decided to take his case directly to the American people.

In he fall of 1919, Wilson suffered a massive stroke. For six weeks he was unable to work. When he recovered, he was never the same -- he was irritable, crippled, and less willing to compromise.

In November, Lodge finally allowed the Treaty to be voted upon in the Senate. Although nearly four-fifths of the Senate favored the Versailles Treaty in some form, there were never the required two-thirds to approve it in any form, and the treaty died. Not until July 1921 did Congress enact a joint resolution ending the American participation in the war.
 

XIV. Conclusion: Consequences of the War

Not for another 20 years would the U.S. assume a leading position in world affairs. The memories of war, disgust with the old European world order, and economic depression turned Americans into isolationists.

The war also killed the Progressive spirit. As war came, Progressives provided the bureaucratic weapons to organize the fight, but the push for social justice and toleration was swept aside in a frenzy of patriotism and intolerance.

War changed Americans. They experienced centralized planning for the first time. Propaganda had shaped ethnic, racial, gender, and class differences into a uniform set of national issues. To a whole generation, the war as a futile effort, a sacrifice without any reward. Provincial America became more uniform, cosmopolitan, and urban. Americans turned from idealistic crusades to the practical business of making and spending money.